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MAYANAGI Makoto; The Transmission of Medical Texts and Concepts between Japan, Korea and China - since the 13thcentury -
iThe 6th International Congress of Oriental Medicine, October 19-21, 1990, Tokyoj,
gProgress of Oriental MedicinehiThe secretariat of the 6th International Congress of Oriental Medicine, 1992,Tokyoj
The Transmission of Medical Texts and Concepts between
Japan, Korea and China -Since the 13th Century-

MAYANAGI Makoto*
* Medical Document Research Section, Oriental Medicine Research Centre of the Kitasato Institute, Tokyo


     Japan continued to benefit from Chinese and korean culture even after the 13th century. These benefits were also reaped in the field of traditional medicine. In the 18th century, this system was modified by the Japanese. It was not until the late 19th century, however, that Japanese medical texts were introduced abroad. Actual exchange between scholars began to take place from the 1930's. Still, it is only in the past decade that such exchanges have become common. Prior to the end of the 19th century, Japan engaged primarily in a one-way importation and assimilation of medical texts. Nonetheless, this heritage is now adding significantly to international exchange today.

The Kamakura Period (1192-1333)
    In this era, printed documents became widespread in China and facilitating procurement of such material. The main source of these documents was Japanese monks returning from their studies in China. The inventory of documents brought back by Ben-en in 1240 listed 32 texts, including the "Suwen". One of these documents, the "Weishi Jiacang Fang", was first printed in 1227; it therefore took only the 13 years for it to reach Japan. This first edition still exists in Japan, but it has long since been lost in China.
    Many monks practiced medicine in this period. Shozen Kajiwara was one such monk. In his work the "Ton-isho" (1304), he took material from Chinese anatomy texts based on dissections of executed criminals-texts that had already disappeared in China. Also in his "Man-anpo", Kajiwara draws from numerous newly imported texts. The court physicians were also active in the study of new medical texts. The "Honzo lrohansho" (1284), written by Tomotoshi Koremune contains excerpts from about 20 different newly arrived texts. The "Shanghan Lun" was among these; this is said to be the first mention of this important text in Japan.

Nanbokucho and the Muromachi Period (1334-1573)
    In 1368, the monk Yurin wrote the "Fukudenpo". This text is a compilation of over 150 Chinese tests, but most of these were not from the Jin and Yuan period. Trade with China began to flourish when the Chinese government changed in 1368, and more physicians traveled to China. Among these physicians were Shokei Takeda (traveling between 1369-78), Sanki Tashiro (1487-98), Jo-un Saka (1492-1500), Akichika Wake(1504-20) and Sokei Yoshida (1539-1547). In 1473, Ryoshin was among the emissaries sent to Korea by the Hatayama clan, and he took Chinese and Japanese medical texts as gifts. The Korean government published both texts the following year. The Korean editions of these books were reprinted in Japan in 1645.
    After the second half of the 15th century, the medical texts of Xiong Zongli began to arrive in Japan from China. More than 30 of his texts reached Japan, exerting a major influence. In the beginning of the 16th century, medical texts began to be printed in Japan. The first two such texts were reprints of Xiong Zongli's texts. Excerpts from his texts were printed as many as 37 times in the Edo period. In approximately the same period, the "Chabing Zhinan" from 13th century China was reprinted in Japan. This text had been in use since the Kamakura period, and was quite popular up through the first half of the Edo period. This text was lost in China, and eventually reprinted from the Japanese edition in 1924.

Azuchi Momoyama Period and Early Edo Period (1574-1709)
    After unifying Japan, Hideyoshi Toyotomi unsuccessfully invaded Korea in 1592 and 1597. His government collapsed shortly after his death (1603).
    Type setting technology reached Japan through the incursions to Korea. By the 1640's this type of printing became predominant. There are over 100 different medical texts printed in this manner which remain from this period. The Japanese brought back prisoners of war from Korea, and among them were physicians. The Korean physician Kim Tokpang is said to have bequeathed his acupuncture secrets to Tokuhon Nagata. Kiyomasa Kato and his entourage brought back precious medical texts from Korea as a prize of war. One of these texts, the "Yuibang Yuujee" was lost in the country of its origin until Chokkan Kitamura reprinted it in 1861, and presented it to the Korean government in 1876.
    A famous physician of this period was Dosan Manase, who systematized Ming period medical works. He authored the "Keitekishu" (1574), as well as books on many other fields, and taught a large following of students. His school began to research classics such as the "Shanghan Lun" and "Jingui Yaolue". Even after national isolationism began in the 1630's, many Chinese medical books were imported to Japan. This can be verified by the records of shipments arriving at Nagasaki, as well as records kept at the government library. A great number of books were copied||for example the "Bencao Gangmu", first published in 1596 was copied 17 times in the Edo period after its arrival before 1604.
    Of the Chinese people that became naturalized in Japan, the following personages are known: He Qinji, discoverer of Panax japonicus; Dai Mangong, author of the "Wanbing Huichun" and student of Gong Tingxian; Ma Rongyu, the "Nei Jing" researcher and descendant of Ma Xuantai. Yushoshi Kitayama, who studied under Gong Tingxian, was Ma Rongyu's son.

The Mid-and Late Edo Period (I710-1867)
    Between 1607 and 1811 Korea sent 12 envoys to Japan in commemoration of each new. These are many records of exchanges between the Korean physicians accompanying the emissaries and Japanese physicians. In 1724, as the first government medical publication, the Shogun Yoshimune printed the Korean text "Tongyui Bogam". This shogun also strove the domesticate Ginseng, and succeeded in cultivating seeds brought to Japan in 1733. By 1780, domestication was well enough established to permit export. From this period onwards, modification of Chinese medicine occurred in Japan. The development of the Koho school in the 18th century is one result of this. This positivistic school criticized and simplified traditional theory, as well as incorporating some Western medical aspects. After 1790, direct ties were made between the government and the Taki family, establishing it as the main school of traditional medicine. This school introduced a new method of researching Confucianism, and promoted the thorough study of the various fields of medicine. It was also responsible for locating old Chinese and Korea medical texts, and for restoring and reproducing authentic texts. This labor became a proud heritage for later generations.

Meiji and Taisho Era (1868-1925)
     The Meiji government adopted Western medicine, and forced traditional medicine into a decline. This was the worst period in the history of Oriental medicine. Although traditional medical texts were considered to be useless, they were highly valued by the Chinese people residing in Japan. In China during that time, 23 such medical tests were printed using printing blocks purchased from Japan. There are 10 Chinese texts brought from Japan into China and duplicated. Four Chinese medical texts were retrieved from Japanese books. 46 Japanese medical books were published in China. Half of these utilized the editions printed or preserved by the Taki family, and continue to be reprinted even today.
    The Meiji government adopted Western medicine, and forced traditional medicine into a decline. This was the worst period in the history of Oriental medicine. Although traditional medical texts were considered to be useless, they were highly valued by the Chinese people residing in Japan. In China during that time, 23 such medical tests were printed using printing blocks purchased from Japan. There are 10 Chinese texts brought from Japan into China and duplicated. Four Chinese medical texts were retrieved from Japanese books. 46 Japanese medical books were published in China. Half of these utilized the editions printed or preserved by the Taki family, and continue to be reprinted even today.

    In this way, although perhaps ironic, Japanese traditional medicine is emerging from its dark age and beginning to repay its debts to neighboring countries.